1. 23 Aggression in Sport chapter

2. Session Outline Aggression in Contemporary Sport What Is Aggression? Causes of Aggression Aggression in Sport: Special Considerations Implications for Practice

3. Aggression in Contemporary Sport NBA Pistons–Pacers brawl NHL player Bertuzzi’s blindsided punch broke vertebra of competitor Steve Moore Local youth ice hockey coach conducted a drill where players practice fighting

4. What Is Aggression? Aggression “Any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” (Baron & Richardson, 1994)

5. Criteria for Aggression Aggression is a behavior. Aggression involves harm or injury (physical or psychological). Aggression is directed toward a living organism. Aggression involves intent.

6. Types of Aggression Hostile or reactive aggression The primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm on another. Instrumental aggression This is aggression occurring in the quest of some nonaggressive goal.

7. Distinction Between Instrumental and Reactive Aggression It is too simplistic to think of instrumental and reactive aggression as a simple dichotomy. The clear majority of instrumental aggressive acts occur in conjunction with some type of reactive process. Think of hostile and instrumental aggression as anchoring the opposite end of a continuum and recognize that at times aggression might involve elements of both types.

8. Causes (Theories) of Aggression Instinct theory Frustration–aggression hypothesis Social learning theory Revised frustration–aggression theory General model of aggression

9. Causes of Aggression Instinct theory Individuals have an instinct to be aggressive, which builds up until it must be expressed (directly or via catharsis). [no support]

10. Causes of Aggression Frustration–aggression hypothesis Aggression is the direct result of a frustration that occurs because of goal blockage or failure. [No support]

11. Causes of Aggression Social learning theory Aggression is learned through observing others (modeling) and then having similar behavior reinforced. [Support]

12. Causes of Aggression Revised frustration–aggression theory Combines elements of frustration–aggression theory with social learning theory. Frustration does not always lead to aggression. It increases the likelihood of aggression by increasing arousal, anger, and other thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Increased arousal and anger result in aggression only when socially learned cues signal the appropriateness of aggression in the particular situation. [Support]

13. Causes of Aggression The general aggression model

14. Causes of Aggression The general aggression model Aggression occurs as a result of a complex process mediated by one's thoughts, feelings, and emotions and resulting from the interaction of numerous personal and situational factors. [Support]

15. Aggression in Sport Special considerations Spectator aggression is associated with small-scale, on-the-field aggressive acts; aroused conditions; alcohol use; younger, disadvantaged male spectators; and (in some cases) fan enjoyment.

16. Aggression in Sport Special considerations Game reasoning and aggression: Many athletes view aggression as inappropriate in general but appropriate in the sport environment. This is called bracketed morality.

17. Aggression in Sport Special considerations Aggression and athletic injuries: In addition to the ethical issues regarding the appropriateness of aggression in sport, evidence is amassing to show that aggressive play is related to athletic injuries.

18. Aggression in Sport Special considerations Athletic performance and aggression: No clear pattern has been found, but professionals must decide if they value enhanced performance at the cost of increased aggression.

19. Aggression in Sport Special considerations Team moral atmosphere and aggression Aggression in young athletes has been predicted by perceptions of teammates’ aggressive behavior in the same situation and the young athletes’ willingness to injure others at their coach’s request. Team norms also contribute to the moral atmosphere that influences aggression in athletes.

20. Aggression in Sport Special considerations Sport-specific aggression determinants include athletes behaving aggressively because someone has committed aggression against them, they are highly ego oriented and have a low level of moral development, they want to show how tough they are, they see it as part of their role, and they feel group pressures to be aggressive.

21. Implications for Practice Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur: when people are frustrated and aroused, often because they are losing, perceive unfair officiating, are embarrassed, are physically in pain, or are playing below capabilities. Note: Losing by a large margin, losing to an opponent one is outplaying, and playing poorly are especially important situations related to aggression.

22. Implications for Practice Understand when aggression is likely to occur. Control aggression via stress or emotion management training. Keep winning in perspective. Distinguish between aggression and assertive or intense play. Teach nonviolent conflict resolution skills. Teach appropriate behavior. (continued)

23. Implications for Practice (continued) 1.Develop strict alcohol control policies. 2.Immediately penalize spectators for aggressive acts. 3.Hire officials who don’t tolerate aggression. 4.Inform coaches that aggression won’t be tolerated. 5.Work with media not to glorify aggressive acts. Control spectator aggression.

24. ISSP Position Stand on Aggression and Violence in Sport Recommendation 1 Management should make fundamental penalty revisions so that rule-violating behavior results in punishments that have greater punitive value than potential reinforcement. Recommendation 2 Management must ensure proper coaching of teams, particularly at junior levels, that emphasizes a fair-play code of conduct among participants. (continued)

25. ISSP Position Stand on Aggression and Violence in Sport (continued) Recommendation 3 Management should ban the use of alcoholic beverages at sport events. Recommendation 4 Management must make sure facilities are adequate regarding catering and spacing needs and the provision of modern amenities. (continued)

26. ISSP Position Stand on Aggression and Violence in Sport (continued) Recommendation 5 The media must place in proper perspective the isolated incidents of aggression that occur in sport, rather than making them “highlights.” Recommendation 6 The media should promote a campaign to decrease violence and hostile aggression in sport, which should also involve the participation and commitment of athletes, coaches, management, officials, and spectators. (continued)

27. ISSP Position Stand on Aggression and Violence in Sport (continued) Recommendation 7 Coaches, managers, athletes, media, officials, and authority figures (i.e., police) should take part in workshops on aggression and violence to ensure they understand the topic of aggression, why it occurs, the cost of aggressive acts, and ways in which aggressive behavior can be controlled. (continued)

28. ISSP Position Stand on Aggression and Violence in Sport (continued) Recommendation 8 Coaches, managers, officials, and the media should encourage athletes to engage in prosocial behavior and should punish those who perform acts of hostility. (continued)

29. ISSP Position Stand on Aggression and Violence in Sport (continued) Recommendation 9 Athletes should take part in programs aimed at helping them reduce behavioral tendencies toward aggression. The tightening of rules, imposing of harsher penalties, and changing of reinforcement patterns are only parts of the answer to inhibiting aggression in sport. Ultimately, the athlete must assume responsibility.