1. Chapter 9 Memory

2. persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Example: September 11 What is your first memory?

3. Memory Memory as Information Processing similar to a computer write to file save to disk read from disk Encoding the processing of information into the memory system

4. Memory Storage the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval process of getting information out of memory

5. Types of Memory Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Short Term Memory activated memory that holds a few (7 +/- 2) items briefly Long Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

6. The Atkinson Shiffrin Model External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Sensory input Attention to important or novel information Encoding Retrieving

7. Encoding- Getting Information In Encoding EffortfulAutomatic

8. Encoding Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information well-learned information word meanings we can learn automatic processing Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious effort

9. Ways to Encode Rehearsal conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage German philosopher Herman Ebbinghaus used 2300 nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning.

10. Ways to Encode: Forgetting Curve

11. Ways to Encode Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice Primacy/Recency (Serial Position Effect) Example: US Presidents

13. Ways to Encode Next In Line Effect Actors/Projects Hierarchies (Bower) Outlines Imagery Mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Method of Loci (Greek drama) Chunking Organize information into meaningful units; helps us with unfamiliar meaning Like horizontal organization – 1776149218121941 Often occurs automatically Use of Acronyms HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior Socks Pulled Over Cold Feet – Sensorimotor, Preoperational, …

14. Encoding

15. Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects

16. Storage- Long Term Memory How does memory storage work? (Biological Perspective) Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Karl Lashley (1950) Rats learn maze lesion cortex test memory Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention

17. Storage- Long Term Memory Amnesia- the loss of memory Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage The Case of HM Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning

18. Storage- Long Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus

19. Retrieval- Getting Information Out Recall the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness Example: Fill in the blank test Recognition the ability to identify previously learned items Example: Multiple choice test

20. Retrieval Relearning amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall Guides to where to look for info Context Effects memory works better in the context of original learning

21. Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before" Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

22. Forgetting Forgetting as Encoding Failure Information never enters the memory system Attention is selective we cannot attend to everything in our environment William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

23. Forgetting The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Retention drops, then levels off 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentage of original vocabulary retained

24. Forgetting as Interference Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information Example: Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information Example:

25. Forgetting as Interference

26. Forgetting- Interference Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise history Repression defense mechanism that banishes anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French

27. Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) Infantile Amnesia

28. Memory Construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

29. Memory Construction People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions Example: Piaget Your first memory? Imagining events can create false memories Children's eyewitness recall Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony

30. Memory Construction Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed? Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists