1. Historical Linguistics 1. Sound Change 2. Morphological Change 3. Syntactic Change 4. Semantic Change

2. 2. Morphological Change Old English cow (sg), kine (pl) –alternation stone (sg), stones (pl) –suffixation of [z] Change: cow, cows –suffixation of [z]

3. Proportional Analogy => Generalization of a relationship a:b::c:x Relationship = N:N+[-z] stone:stones ::cow:cows

4. Regular > Irregular (suffixation > alternation) Older form: dive (Pres), dived (Past) drive:drove::dive:dove

5. Relationship is the key. Verbs sing:sang:sung ring:rang:rung bring:brang:brung –(overgeneralization in children’s speech) But not nouns king(sg):kang(pl)

6. Paradigm Leveling Latin Rhotacism /s/ > [r] / V_V rūsal > rural opesa > opera corposeal > corporeal Remnants of [s]: rustic, opus, corpus

7. Paradigm Leveling => Reduce irregularity created by regular sound change Rhotacized Nom:honos> honos Gen:honos-is> honor-is Acc:honos-em> honor-em

8. Paradigm Leveled Nom:honos> honor Gen:honos-is> honor-is Acc:honos-em> honor-em

9. 3. Syntactic Change Old English OV order in embedded and coordinate clauses S andEraclyussona andEraclyusimmediately OV hisswurdateah hissworddrew

10. English Word Order Change: SOV > SVO Phrase structure rules: S = NP VP VP = NP V>VP = V NP

11. Old English verb movement in main clauses AdvV þāongeat thenperceived SO secyningþæt. thekingthat

12. Phrase Structure Rules S = NP Aux VP VP = NP V S’ = _ S Movement Move V to _ in [ S’ _ S]

13. S’ _S NPVP NPV

14. S’ VS NPVP _NP perceived the king that

15. Old English: Move V to _ in [ S’ _ S] Modern English Questions Move Aux to _ in [ S’ _ S] She has left. Has she left?

16. S’ _S NP AuxVP she hasleft

17. S’ AuxS NP __VP has she left

18. Modern English: Aux movement only Did she leave? *Left she. => Insert auxiliary verb

19. Old > Modern English 1. Head-final VP > Head-initial VP (VP = NP V > VP = V NP) 2. Move V to _ in [ S’ _ S] > Move Aux to _ in [ S’ _ S]

20. 4. Semantic Change Extension (Widening) dog, bird –specific type > general class salary < salārium (Lat) –‘allotment of salt’ > ‘wages’

21. Reduction (Narrowing) hound, fowl –general class > specific type deer –‘animal’ > specific type of animal girl –‘child’ > ‘female child’

22. Metaphorical Extension broadcast < ‘spread seeds’ French feuille –‘leaf’ > ‘sheet of paper’ Spanish firma –‘fix, make firm’ > ‘signature’

23. Elevation knight < ‘youth’, ‘servant’ Japanese samurai < saburafu ‘to serve’ pretty < ‘crafty, sly’ nice < ‘foolish’

24. Degredation spinster < ‘one who spins’ villain < French ‘farm worker’ disease < ‘discomfort’