1. Memory

2. Memory as storage, retention and retrieval of information. All information entering the brain passes through sensory memory and enters short-term memory. Information is then transferred to long-term memory (LTM) or discarded. (i) Sensory memory — lasts a few seconds and retains all of the visual or auditory input. (ii) Short-term memory (STM). To include memory span, the serial position effect, maintaining items by rehearsal and loss of items by displacement and decay. Improvement of STM by ‘chunking’. (iii) Long-term memory (LTM). The transfer of information from STM to LTM due to rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. Information is encoded using shallow encoding or elaborative encoding. Retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues. (iv) Location of memory in the brain. Episodic and semantic memory are stored in the cortex. Procedural memories (skills) are linked to the motor cortex. Emotional memories involve links between the cortex and the limbic system. Spatial memory is located in the limbic system. Memory - syllabus

3. Memory as storage, retention and retrieval of information. Memory Ability of the brain to store retain and retrieve information Memory is selective Receptors continuously transmit information to the brain but only a fraction of this is stored Encoding To enter memory, sensory stimuli must first be encoded Encoding = Conversion of nerve impulses into a form that can be received and stored by the brain Memory involves: encoding, storage and retrieval

4. All information entering the brain passes through sensory memory and enters short-term memory. Information is then transferred to long-term memory (LTM) or discarded. (i) Sensory memory — lasts a few seconds and retains all of the visual or auditory input. (ii) Short-term memory (STM). To include memory span, the serial position effect, maintaining items by rehearsal and loss of items by displacement and decay. Improvement of STM by ‘chunking’. Levels of memory 3 levels: Sensory memory. Contains all visual and auditory stimuli perceived by the brain Short lived (0.5 seconds visual, 2 seconds auditory) Only a few stimuli selected for transfer to short term memory Short term memory Limited capacity – about 7 items (called memory span) Items held for a short time (about 30 seconds) During this time retrieval is very accurate Items then transferred to LTM or lost by displacement (being replaced by other items) or decay Rehearsal (repetition) extends the time information is held in the STM Chunking increases the number of items held (memory span)

5. Chunking A chunk is a meaningful unit of information made up of several smaller units Short term memory can only hold about 7 items Chunking allows an increase in memory span by grouping several items into a single item e.g. 8641 is four units 2016 (this year) is a single unit Rehearsal Repeating over and over (silently or aloud) a piece of information that you are trying to memorise Helps to extend the time for which information is retained in the STM Also helps to transfer information to the long term memory Serial position effect When presented with a series of items to remember, those at the start (primacy effect) and those at the end (recency effect) are best remembered Those at the start are remembered because there is time for them to have been rehearsed and for some to be encoded and transferred to long term memory. The last 7 or so items are remembered because they are still in the short term memory Short-term memory (STM). To include memory span, the serial position effect, maintaining items by rehearsal and loss of items by displacement and decay. Improvement of STM by ‘chunking’.

6. Long term memory Thought to be able to hold an unlimited amount of information During encoding, items are organised into categories, e.g. personal facts, useful skills They are then stored in the LTM Transfer between STM and LTM If an item is encoded while in the STM, this allows it to be stored in the LTM and later retrieved. Transfer from STM to LTM is helped by Rehearsal Organisation Elaboration of meaning (elaborative encoding), e.g. making up a memorable story involving the facts to be remembered Rehearsal Research shows that stopping and rehearsing information is more successful in transferring to LTM than reading information continuously Organisation Information organised into logical categories is more easily transferred from STM to LTM Long-term memory (LTM). The transfer of information from STM to LTM due to rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. Information is encoded using shallow encoding or elaborative encoding. Retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues.

7. Retrieval from the LTM Retrieval is aided by contextual cues Cue = reminder Contextual = conditions or circumstances present when the information was encoded The more categories under which the same information is stored, the more contextual cues and the easier it is to retrieve A memory whose encoding in the LTM was accompanied by unusually dramatic or emotional events has powerful contextual cues that allow it to be retrieved easily Retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues.

8. (iv) Location of memory in the brain. Episodic and semantic memory are stored in the cortex. Procedural memories (skills) are linked to the motor cortex. Emotional memories involve links between the cortex and the limbic system. Spatial memory is located in the limbic system. Type of memoryDescriptionLocation in the brain episodicRelate to experiences, events and personal facts Specific regions of the cerebral cortex (Believed that each memory stored in the cortex region that first received the information) SemanticRelate to general knowledge, non-personal facts and concepts ProceduralRelating to motor skills and mental skills (e.g. remembering how to read) Motor area of the cerebral cortex EmotionalFormed as a result of positive or negative responses to certain stimuli Involve links between the cerebral cortex and limbic system SpatialInformation about a person’s environment and it’s spatial orientation Limbic system

9. Type of memoryDescriptionLocation in the brain episodicRelate to experiences, events and personal facts Specific regions of the cerebral cortex (Believed that each memory stored in the cortex region that first received the information) SemanticRelate to general knowledge, non-personal facts and concepts ProceduralRelating to motor skills and mental skills (e.g. remembering how to read) Motor area of the cerebral cortex EmotionalFormed as a result of positive or negative responses to certain stimuli Involve links between the cerebral cortex and limbic system SpatialInformation about a person’s environment and it’s spatial orientation Limbic system