1. Chapter 5: Computer Systems Organization Invitation to Computer Science,

2. Invitation to Computer Science 2 Objectives In this chapter, you will learn about: The components of a computer system Putting all the pieces together – the Von Neumann architecture The future: non-Von Neumann architectures

3. 3 Introduction Remember that Computer science is the study of algorithms including Their formal and mathematical properties (Chapter 1-3) their hardware realization (Chapter 4-5) Their linguistic realizations. Their applications. Computer organization examines the computer as a collection of interacting “functional units” Functional units may be built out of the circuits already studied Higher level of abstraction assists in understanding by reducing complexity Invitation to Computer Science

4. 4 Figure 5.1 The Concept of Abstraction Invitation to Computer Science

5. 5 The Components of a Computer System Von Neumann architecture has four functional units:  Memory The unit that stores and retrieves instructions and data.  Input/Output Handles communication with the outside world. Sequential execution of instructions  Arithmetic/Logic unit Performs mathematical and logical operations.  Control unit Repeats the following 3 tasks repeatedly 1. Fetches an instruction from memory 2. Decodes the instruction 3. Executes the instruction Stored program concept Invitation to Computer Science

6. 6 Figure 5.2 Components of the Von Neumann Architecture Invitation to Computer Science

7. 7 Memory and Cache Information stored and fetched from memory subsystem Random Access Memory (RAM) maps addresses to memory locations Cache memory keeps values currently in use in faster memory to speed access times Invitation to Computer Science

8. 8 Memory and Cache (continued) RAM (Random Access Memory )  Memory made of addressable “cells”  Current standard cell size is 1 byte = 8 bits  All memory cells accessed in equal time  Memory address The address is an unsigned binary number N long  Address space is then 2 N cells Invitation to Computer Science

9. 9 Memory and Cache (continued)  Memory Size Memory size is in power of 2  2 10 =1K1 kilobyte  2 20 =1M1 megabyte  2 30 =1G1 gigabyte  2 40 =1T1 terabyte  If the MAR is N digits long, the largest address is….? The maximum memory size for a MAR with  N = 16 is..?_______________  N = 20 is..?_______________  N = 31 is..?________________ Invitation to Computer Science

10. 10 Figure 5.3 Structure of Random Access Memory Invitation to Computer Science

11. 11 Memory and Cache (continued) Parts of the memory subsystem  Fetch/store controller Fetch: retrieve a value from memory Store: store a value into memory  Memory address register (MAR)  Memory data register (MDR)  Memory cells, with decoder(s) to select individual cells Invitation to Computer Science

12. 12 Decoder Circuit A decoder is a control circuit which has  N input and 2 N output A 3 to 2 3 example of decoder a b c o0 o1 o2 o3 o4 o5 o6 o7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 a b c 0123456701234567 Invitation to Computer Science

13. 13 Memory and Cache (continued) Fetch operation 1. Load the address in to the MAR The address of the desired memory cell is moved into the MAR 2. Decode the address in the MAR Fetch/store controller signals a “fetch,” accessing the memory cell. The memory unit must translate the N-bit address stored in the MAR into the set of signals needed to access that one specific memory cell  A decoder circuit is used for such a purpose 3. Copy the content of the memory location into the MDR The value at the MAR’s location flows into the MDR Invitation to Computer Science

14. 14 Memory and Cache (continued) Store operation 1. Load the address into the MAR The address of the cell where the value should go is placed in the MAR 2. Load the value into the MDR The new value is placed in the MDR 3. Decode the address in the MAR and store the content of the MDR into that memory location Fetch/store controller signals a “store,” copying the MDR’s value into the desired cell Invitation to Computer Science

15. 15 Example: The Units Of A Computer Invitation to Computer Science

16. 16 Fetch: LOAD X X D D LOAD X f D Invitation to Computer Science

17. 17 Store: STORE X X D STORE X s D D Invitation to Computer Science

18. 18 Memory and Cache (continued) Memory register  Very fast memory location  Given a name, not an address  Serves some special purpose  Modern computers have dozens or hundreds of registers Invitation to Computer Science

19. 19 Figure 5.7 Overall RAM Organization Invitation to Computer Science

20. 20 Cache Memory Memory access is much slower than processing time Faster memory is too expensive to use for all memory cells Locality principle  Once a value is used, it is likely to be used again Small size, fast memory just for values currently in use speeds computing time Invitation to Computer Science

21. 21 Input/Output and Mass Storage Communication with outside world and external data storage  Human interfaces: monitor, keyboard, mouse  Archival storage: not dependent on constant power External devices vary tremendously from each other Invitation to Computer Science

22. 22 Input/Output and Mass Storage (continued) Volatile storage  Information disappears when the power is turned off  Example: RAM Nonvolatile storage  Information does not disappear when the power is turned off  Example: mass storage devices such as disks and tapes Invitation to Computer Science

23. 23 Input/Output and Mass Storage (continued) Mass storage devices  Direct access storage device Hard drive, CD-ROM, DVD, etc. Uses its own addressing scheme to access data  Sequential access storage device Tape drive, etc. Stores data sequentially Used for backup storage these days Invitation to Computer Science

24. 24 Input/Output and Mass Storage (continued) Direct access storage devices  Data stored on a spinning disk  Disk divided into concentric rings (sectors)  Read/write head moves from one ring to another while disk spins  Access time depends on: Time to move head to correct sector Time for sector to spin to data location Invitation to Computer Science

25. 25 Figure 5.8 Overall Organization of a Typical Disk Invitation to Computer Science

26. 26 Input/Output and Mass Storage (continued) I/O controller  Intermediary between central processor and I/O devices  Processor sends request and data, then goes on with its work  I/O controller interrupts processor when request is complete Invitation to Computer Science

27. 27 Figure 5.9 Organization of an I/O Controller Invitation to Computer Science

28. 28 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit Actual computations are performed Primitive operation circuits  Arithmetic (ADD, etc.)  Comparison (CE, etc.)  Logic (AND, etc.) Data inputs and results stored in registers Multiplexor selects desired output Invitation to Computer Science

29. 29 Multiplexor A multiplexor is a control circuit that selects one of the input lines to allow its value to be output.  To do so, it uses the selector lines to indicate which input line to select. A multiplexor It has 2 N input lines, N selector lines and one output.  The N selector lines are set to 0s or 1s. When the values of the N selector lines are interpreted as a binary number, they represent the number of the input line that must be selected.  With N selector lines you can represent numbers between 0 and 2 N -1. The single output is the value on the line represented by the number formed by the selector lines. Invitation to Computer Science

30. 30 Multiplexor Circuit multiplexor circuit 2 N input lines 0 1 2 2 N -1 N selector lines output Interpret the selector lines as a binary number. Suppose that the selector line write the number 00….01 which is equal to 1. For our example, the output is the value on the line numbered 1..... Invitation to Computer Science

31. 31 multiplexor with N=1 0 1 A multiplexor can be built with AND-OR-NOT gates Multiplexor Circuit (continued) Invitation to Computer Science

32. 32 RECALL: THE ARITHMETIC/LOGIC UNIT USES A MULTIPLEXOR R AL1 AL2 ALU circuits multiplexor selector lines output (In the lab you will see where this will go) GT EQ LT condition code register Register R Other registers Invitation to Computer Science

33. 33 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (continued) ALU process  Values for operations copied into ALU’s input register locations  All circuits compute results for those inputs  Multiplexor selects the one desired result from all values  Result value copied to desired result register Invitation to Computer Science

34. 34 Figure 5.12 Using a Multiplexor Circuit to Select the Proper ALU Result Invitation to Computer Science

35. 35 The Control Unit Manages stored program execution Task 1. Fetch from memory the next instruction to be executed 2. Decode it: determine what is to be done 3. Execute it: issue appropriate command to ALU, memory, and I/O controllers Invitation to Computer Science

36. 36 Machine Language Instructions Can be decoded and executed by control unit Parts of instructions  Operation code (op code) Unique unsigned-integer code assigned to each machine language operation  Address field(s) Memory addresses of the values on which operation will work Invitation to Computer Science

37. 37 Figure 5.14 Typical Machine Language Instruction Format 00001001 0000000001100011 0000000001100100 ADD XY Invitation to Computer Science

38. 38 Operations Available Arithmetic Operations load store clear add increment subtract decrement I/0 Operations in out Logic/Control Operations compare jump jumpgt jumpeq jumplt jumpneq halt There is a different Operation Code (OpCode) for each Operation Invitation to Computer Science

39. 39 Machine Language Instructions (continued) Operations of machine language  Data transfer Move values to and from memory and registers  Arithmetic/logic Perform ALU operations that produce numeric values Invitation to Computer Science

40. 40 Machine Language Instructions (continued) Operations of machine language (continued)  Compares Set bits of compare register to hold result  Branches Jump to a new memory address to continue processing Invitation to Computer Science

41. 41 Control Unit Registers And Circuits Parts of control unit  Links to other subsystems  Instruction decoder circuit  Two special registers: Program Counter (PC)  Stores the memory address of the next instruction to be executed Instruction Register (IR)  Stores the code for the current instruction Invitation to Computer Science

42. 42 Figure 5.16 Organization of the Control Unit Registers and Circuits Invitation to Computer Science

43. 43 Putting All the Pieces Together—the Von Neumann Architecture Subsystems connected by a bus  Bus: wires that permit data transfer among them At this level, ignore the details of circuits that perform these tasks: Abstraction! Computer repeats fetch-decode-execute cycle indefinitely Invitation to Computer Science

44. 44 Figure 5.18 The Organization of a Von Neumann Computer Invitation to Computer Science

45. 45 The Control Unit PC +1 1 0 0 1 address IR instruction decoder enable add line 9 1) After a fetch, the PC is incremented by 1. 2) The fetch places the instruction in the IR. 3) The opcode is sent to the decoder 4) The decoder sends out signals for execution 5) As all instructions use the address, except for halt, the address is sent to either the MAR or PC- which depends on the instruction. Invitation to Computer Science

46. 46 The Future: Non-Von Neumann Architectures Physical limitations on speed of Von Neumann computers Non-Von Neumann architectures explored to bypass these limitations Parallel computing architectures can provide improvements: multiple operations occur at the same time Invitation to Computer Science

47. 47 What are the fastest computer in the world? Visit the site http://www.top500.org/list/2005/06/ to find out! Invitation to Computer Science

48. 48 The Future: Non-Von Neumann Architectures (continued) SIMD architecture  Single instruction/Multiple data  Multiple processors running in parallel  All processors execute same operation at one time  Each processor operates on its own data  Suitable for “vector” operations Invitation to Computer Science

49. 49 Figure 5.21 A SIMD Parallel Processing System Invitation to Computer Science

50. 50 MIMD architecture  Multiple instruction/Multiple data  Multiple processors running in parallel  Each processor performs its own operations on its own data  Processors communicate with each other The Future: Non-Von Neumann Architectures (continued) Invitation to Computer Science

51. 51 Figure 5.22 Model of MIMD Parallel Processing Invitation to Computer Science

52. 52 Summary of Level 2 Focus on how to design and build computer systems Chapter 4  Binary codes  Transistors  Gates  Circuits Invitation to Computer Science

53. 53 Summary of Level 2 (continued) Chapter 5  Von Neumann architecture  Shortcomings of the sequential model of computing  Parallel computers Invitation to Computer Science

54. 54 Summary Computer organization examines different subsystems of a computer: memory, input/output, arithmetic/logic unit, and control unit Machine language gives codes for each primitive instruction the computer can perform, and its arguments Von Neumann machine: sequential execution of stored program Parallel computers improve speed by doing multiple tasks at one time Invitation to Computer Science

55. 55 Examples of instructions: LOAD X X D D LOAD X f D Invitation to Computer Science

56. 56 STORE X X D s D D Invitation to Computer Science

57. 57 ADD X X D D f ALU1 & ALU2 E E+DE D Invitation to Computer Science

58. 58 INCREMENT X X D INC X D+1 Invitation to Computer Science

59. 59 COMPARE X (assume D > E) X D D COM X f ALU1 & ALU2 D E E 1 0 0 Invitation to Computer Science

60. 60 JUMP X X Invitation to Computer Science

61. 61 JUMPLT X X 0 0 1 Invitation to Computer Science

62. 62 JUMPLT X 1 0 0 JUMPLT X Similarly for condition code of 0 1 0 Invitation to Computer Science

63. 63 IN X X D s D D Invitation to Computer Science

64. 64 OUT X X D D f D Invitation to Computer Science