1. ARGUMENTS Chapter 15

2. INTRODUCTION All research projects require some argumentation An argument simply ‘combines’ existing facts to derive new facts, e.g. –Everything in an o-o system is an object –Rules occur in active databases –Conclusion: rules in an o-o active database have to be objects

3. CONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS Arguments may be used in a) entire reasoning process or b) some aspect of the system Normally it is used as building blocks of entire argument Facts to derive a conclusion is known as premises of argument Conclusion forms a premise of subsequent argument

4. CONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS Premises are obtained from facts gathered elsewhere, e.g. –definitions, observations, conclusions from other arguments, etc. When you use a known fact, you must refer to the source The sources give weight to argument If your observations are substantiated by empirical research –it is a premise –if not, it is merely an assumption

5. FORMULATING ARGUMENTS Conjunctions are used to indicate that one is busy with an argument Words like; thus, therefore, since and because are used to indicate a conclusion is drawn based on premises In the case of thus and therefore, the premises are usually listed before the sentence that contain the thus or therefore In the case of since or because, one or more premises follow the conjunction

6. FORMULATING ARGUMENTS Many more words can be used –as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, so, then, while Using a premise that appeared earlier in your argument, briefly repeat the premise; –as noted, as argued, as concluded, as proven

7. FORMULATING ARGUMENTS Examples play a major role in most arguments: –a statement that something exists is easily supported by a single example –a statement that something is quite common must be supported by a list of examples Complex arguments can be made trivial by using a simple illustrative example

8. EVALUATING ARGUMENTS An argument can only be criticised by: –contradicting one of the premises or –showing that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises

9. STANDARD ARGUMENTS Example 1: –the proposed model is simpler than existing models –simplicity is a desirable characteristic of model –THUS: the proposed model is better than existing models

10. STANDARD ARGUMENTS Example 2: –the experimental variable was different for the experimental and control groups –all other variables were the same for the two groups –THUS: the observed differences between the two groups are attributed to the experimental variable

11. STANDARD ARGUMENTS Example 3: –some characteristic applies to a significant number of members of a sample –the sample statistically represents some population –THUS: this characteristic applies to a significant number of members of the population

12. “People quarrel, because they cannot argue” GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON