1. Panayiotis Christodoulou

2.  The types of end-user documentation  How technical writing differs from other writing  How technical documents are organized  How to plan effective documentation  The technical writing process  Effective use of formats  Strategies for technical writing  Common problems in technical writing  Tools used for technical writing  How to evaluate documentation

3.  The major types of computer facilities  The most common facilities management problems  Management tools and procedures for dealing with end-user facilities problems

4.  Computer facilities range from a single, standalone system installed in a small office or home (sometimes call SOHO – small office, home office) to a network of thousands of PCs in a large organization. A computer facility is the combination of the hardware, software, network, information, people, and operating procedures associated with the use of any computer system. Facilities can be centralized such as a mainframe computer center where the hardware, peripherals, software, data, operating staff, and related facilities are located in the same place. Other facilities may be decentralized where the computer equipment and related software and facilities are located in the offices with the people who use them. The trend today is toward distributed computer facilities in which some parts of a computer system are centralized whereas other parts are decentralized. With a network system, for example, the server is located in a central facility and users connect from offices or classrooms using a local client PC. Centralized, decentralized and distributed facilities make different demands on the support organization.

5.  Support specialists and computer facilities managers must deal with many types of problems. Most PCs today are fairly reliable, but PC support specialists are likely to encounter at least some hardware malfunctions. Organizations deal with hardware problems and repairs in a variety of ways. Three common strategies are outsourcing hardware repairs to a service provider, performing simple repairs inhouse and outsourcing major or difficult problems, or maintaining an in-house repair facility. In each of these strategies, user support specialists may need to diagnose problems and distinguish between a hardware problem and a software problem that looks like a hardware problem.

6.  In the first option, when a problem is discovered the PC is sent to a hardware service provider for repairs. The user support specialist who first diagnoses the problem must know enough about hardware problems to make simple repairs and test. He or she must also be able to recognize the difference between a real hardware malfunction and a configuration problem. In the second option, the support staff often performs simple tasks such as replacing a defective cable, replacing memory, or adding a disk drive. Any hardware problems that exceed the support staff’s ability to diagnose or repair is sent out for repairs just as in option 1. The third option of an in-house repair facility is usually only found in larger organizations because of the financial resources that are required to maintain technical staff and an inventory of parts

7.  When an organization outsources hardware services it usually negotiates a service level agreement with the vendor.  The service level agreement (SLA) is a written contract that defines the expectations between an organization and the service vendor providing hardware support. This document outlines such conditions as response time for service, local parts availability, preventative maintenance and diagnostic services, where the service will be performed and cost and penalties. Hardware SLAs generally cover both parts and labor agreements. Another option is to contract with a local computer store or service company to provide repairs. These organizations may either negotiate an SLA or they may provide service on a time and materials best effort basis. This means that there is usually no contract for response time, parts availability and the vender charges an hourly rate for repairs and parts needed.

8.  Some organizations purchase one or more backup systems in case a primary system fails. A redundant system is an extra backup computer or peripheral that is identical to the hardware in daily use. A redundant system can add to an organizations upfront cost, however, it can reduce costs later for repairs and downtime. The concept of an inexpensive backup replacement has become popular with the development of RAID disk technology. A redundant array of inexpensive disks (RAID) provides large amounts of disk storage using a cluster of cheap hard drives. If one disk on a RAID system fails, it can be replaced with little or no downtime and it permits a hard drive replacement to occur without interrupting normal operations with no loss of data.

9.  Another concern is managing electrical power failures and problems. Downtime is a measure of the number of hours (per week or month) when a computer system is unavailable for use because of the power failures or other problem; uptime measures the number of operational hours. A power conditioner is an electrical device that inputs “dirty” power from an electric supplier and retransmits “clean” power to computer equipment. Dirty power is electricity that fluctuates beyond normal bounds in voltage, frequency, or other characteristics that can affect the operation of computer hardware. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is an electrical device that includes power conditioning circuits as well as a battery backup that begins operation when the UPS senses that the electrical power supply is interrupted or reduced. The battery capacity in a UPS is intended to provide time for the user to properly shut down the computer equipment

10.  Software problems are often reported to support staff first. The staff may keep a problem log where entries are made whenever a user calls with a problem. Another method is to use a software problem report (SPR) system to capture problem report data associated with computer programs. The SPR system captures basic information such as the program in which the suspected bug occurred, a description of the bug, who discovered it, the urgency of the problem and to whom the bug was referred for repair.

11.  Computer networks are a combination of hardware and software Because networks are so complex, they pose their own unique administrative, performance monitoring, media backup, security, and maintenance issues. Administrative procedures involve tasks associated with creating and maintaining user accounts, passwords, e-mail accounts, allocations of disk space, rights and privileges of resource access and use, and possibly accounting and billing procedures.

12.  Hardware and software tools that show network administrators and support staff how effectively a network is operating are called performance monitors and they collect information about key aspects of network operations.  Media backups on a network system can significantly reduce facilities management costs and problems. Access security is more significant in a network environment and a network administrator plays a key role in the control of access to the network facilities because the administrator controls the user account management process. Software maintain is also a significant concern because the scope of dealing with such a large number of computers.

13.  Security concerns have added to the workload of network and technical support staff. Security concerns can be classified based on the origin of the threat and the kind of threat. Internal threats arise from inside an organization, including workers and end users. External threats arise from outside an organization, including clients, hackers, and the public. Electronic threats arise from attempts to breach the information or resources in a computer system. Physical threats arise from attempts to damage or disrupt computer facilities.

14.  There are many potential sources of security problems, but the most common sources of the problems include:  Proliferation of virus software, including worm viruses that overload networks and deny service to legitimate traffic ◦ Spam e-mail attacks on network servers and end-user computers ◦ Attempts by unauthorized users to gain access to or control over computers and information ◦ Operating system software vulnerabilities that permit unauthorized access due to bugs in distributed software ◦ Proliferation of software that spies on the habits and behavior of end users or targets users for pop-up advertisements ◦ Lack of secure data transmission using encryption features

15.  Unauthorized users frequently attempt to gain access to a computer attached to the Internet through operating system vulnerabilities, which are unintended paths or gateways into a system due to unpatched software bugs. A firewall is either a hardware device or a software utility designed to intercept and prevent unauthorized attempts to access a computer system that is connected to the Internet. A callback modem can be used to prevent unauthorized users from connecting. A callback modem returns the user’s call to a predefined, secure telephone number for that user. Physical access tools are designed to reduce threats from both unauthorized access and sabotage.

16.  Events such as power failures, floods, fires, storms, earthquakes, and sabotage cannot be prevented, however, they can be managed by using risk management strategies. Risk management is the use of a number of tools to reduce the threat to an organization from these disasters and to help the organization to recover from these disasters when they occur with minimal financial or customer service loss.  There are a variety of disaster management tools that can be used to help manage risk. An organization can purchase business interruption insurance to provide additional financial resources at the time an unforeseen event occurs.  They can also obtain an engineering inspection to help identify the potential for damage to computer equipment and facilities that may include a recommendation for modifying building structures to reduce the impact of a disaster.

17.  Hot and cold site agreements are strategies for creating redundancy that serve as emergency backups to an existing computer system. A cold site is a building and space where a replacement computer system could be installed quickly after a disaster and is usually located in another town.  A hot site differs from a cold site in that it already has functioning equipment like that of the system is it designed to backup. Instead of purchasing a hot or cold site agreement from a vendor, organizations may sign mutual assistance agreements to provide hot and cold site facilities to other organizations.

18.  Copies of important programs and data written on separate media are called media backups, and are a critical component of any disaster contingency plan. In addition to media backups, tools to deal with threats of sabotage are important. Computer facilities that have a large investment in equipment in a central location take steps to limit physical and electronic access to their facility. Access management tools can include keypad entry locks, identification badges and ID cards that function like entry keys, biometric readers that can identify voice, fingerprints, vascular identification, motion sensors and heat detection systems, camera systems to monitor facilities, metal detectors, physical barriers (walls and windows), and reception desks. The counterpart of physical security is electronic security including passwords, Internet firewalls, callback modems, and other online security measures are common precautions in installations of every size.

19.  A disaster/contingency plan is a document that describes various activities that will occur if a computer facility experiences a temporary disruption of service. Disaster plans often address such events as fires, earthquakes, power outages, water damage, and sabotage. A disaster/contingency plan should include a complete, up-to-date directory of all employees, including titles, home addresses, and phone numbers. It should also have a current list of all employees who need to be notified in case of a disaster, including addresses and phone numbers, and a calling tree that specifies which employees should call other employees to ensure the fastest possible response time in the event of a disaster.

20.  Information such as the location of all backup media for software and data stored off-site and whom to contact for access, a recent copy of all operational procedures and other site-specific documentation, a current inventory of all equipment, software, and licenses, a list of any insurance policies, hot or cold site agreements, or reciprocal agreements for emergency services, a floor plan of the facility and instructions for staff evaluation in case of emergency is also very important for this type of plan.

21.  Managing ergonomic problems is an ongoing process to ensure that the facility provides a safe place for users to work.  The management of user errors are also an ongoing process. User errors range from data entry errors to failure to make and keep adequate media backups. Training for end users is intended to reduce errors and support staff should attempt to identify patterns of mistakes that can be addressed in training programs. Feedback to software developers from support staff that observe patterns of problems encountered by users can help the software designers and programmers address common errors. Automated procedures are another way to address end- user errors.  Audits are useful tools for support staff to identify common computer problems. A system audit is an investigation by an independent consultant or group to verify that proper operating procedures are followed and to identify potential end-user problem areas.

22.  Facilities support also includes managing crime and misuse. Support specialists can use several control strategies to reduce computer crime. One method, access controls, are procedures and tools to limit electronic or remote entry into a computer system or network of computers and can include user identification, authentication procedures, password entry to access system resources, and the granting of rights and privileges to categories of users. Physical controls are tools used in computer facilities to limit physical access to equipment and information; these include locks, identification badges, key card systems, alarms, and cable tie-down systems. Inventory controls are part of an organization’s asset management system and provide facilities managers with tools and procedures to maintain records about the location, configuration, and value of computer equipment. Information controls include procedures to account for and limit access to valuable or confidential information.

23.  Any organization that has substantial turnover in computer equipment faces the challenge of recycling equipment. Most organizations pass their old equipment to other users within the organization or donate them to school or other charity groups. Before a computer system is handed down or donated, the hard disk drive should be removed and destroyed, or should be erased with a special utility program, to protect the confidentiality of personal or corporate data.

24.  One of the most difficult tasks for support specialists is to convince end users that media backups are important. An important decision for a user or support person is how much data to back up. Most backup software offers three options for back ups. Full backup copies all files in the directory or folder selected. Incremental backup copies only those files that have changed since the last backup of any kind. Differential backup copies only those files that have changed since the last full backup. Progressive backup copies only those files that need to be backed up. File restoration is a procedure to copy one or more files from back media to the original or a replacement disk when data or programs have been erased or destroyed.

25.  As users create, modify, and delete files, the way each file is stored on disk changes. Eventually, pieces of files will be saved all over a disk, causing the computer to spend more time retrieving files which results in a drop in performance.  The defragmentation process uses a utility program that reads and rewrites all the files on a disk so that each file is in contiguous sectors.

26.  Support specialists may also be called upon to perform media maintenance such as recovering lost allocation units, deleting unused programs and files, and recycling or replacing tape cartridges. Lost allocation units on a disk do not usually cause severe problems. A utility program such as scandisk can identify and repair allocation and media damage problems. In addition, space can be recovered by deleting files and programs that are no longer being used. Most Windows based programs should be uninstalled, rather than just deleted. Backup media should also be used periodically and media that is two or three years old should be copied to new media to limit data loss.

27.  Another facet to facilities management is the purchase of computer supplies. Facilities mangers generally have someone responsible for managing an inventory of printer supplies (paper, labels, ink and toner cartridges, and ribbons), media (diskettes, cartridge tapes, and removable hard disks), cleaning supplies (cloths and solution), and even computer parts (cables, tools, and batteries).

28.  Preventative maintenance uses tools and procedures to reduce the likelihood of computer component failure and expensive costs. There is very little preventative maintenance that can be performed on a system unit, however, the unit should be kept in a dust free environment, the battery should be tested periodically and diagnostic software should be used to test the electronic components. It is important to use a floppy disk drive cleaning kit for floppy drives that are in a high use environment. Printers and keyboards should be vacuumed periodically to remove dust and other particles.  The rubber ball inside a mouse or trackball can become dusty and dirty with use and need cleaning. Monitors, especially in high use areas, need to be cleaned frequently.

29.  Checking for computer viruses is also an important task. A computer virus is a program that can attach itself to other programs, e-mail messages, macros in applications software, or disk media and can destroy programs and data on a computer system. Several software utilities such as McAfee and Symantec are designed to detect, remove and monitor virus activity on a system. A virus hoax is an apparently well- meaning transmission (usually via e-mail) from what appears to be a trustworthy source to warn a user about a suspected virus that is likely to do harm to the user’s computer.

30.  Although most organizations do not charge end users directly for using PC systems and computer networks, some facilities may charge an access fee. Other organizations track usage and even though no money changes hands, the IS department uses the paper charges as a way to cover costs and justify expenditures. User support specialists who are assigned computer facilities management tasks may be confronted with other issues such as designing end-user computing facilities like labs and work areas, capacity planning for servers, disk space, network infrastructure and printers, disposal of surplus or obsolete computer equipment, ethics issues and legal issues.