1. PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Barbara Heard, Atlantic Cape Community College C H A P T E R © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.© Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images 9 Muscles and Muscle Tissue: Part B

2. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Review Principles of Muscle Mechanics Same principles apply to contraction of single fiber and whole muscle Contraction produces muscle tension, force exerted on load or object to be moved

3. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Review Principles of Muscle Mechanics Contraction may/may not shorten muscle –Isometric contraction: no shortening; muscle tension increases but does not exceed load –Isotonic contraction: muscle shortens because muscle tension exceeds load Force and duration of contraction vary in response to stimuli of different frequencies and intensities

4. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Motor Unit: The Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit Each muscle served by at least one motor nerve –Motor nerve contains axons of up to hundreds of motor neurons –Axons branch into terminals, each of which  NMJ with single muscle fiber Motor unit = motor neuron and all (four to several hundred) muscle fibers it supplies –Smaller number = fine control

5. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.13 A motor unit consists of one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. Spinal cord Motor unit 1 Motor unit 2 Axon terminals at neuromuscular junctions Branching axon to motor unit Motor neuron cell body Motor neuron axon Muscle fibers Nerve Branching axon terminals form neuromuscular junctions, one per muscle fiber (photomicro- graph 330x). Axons of motor neurons extend from the spinal cord to the muscle. There each axon divides into a number of axon terminals that form neuromuscular junctions with muscle fibers scattered throughout the muscle.

6. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Motor Unit Muscle fibers from motor unit spread throughout muscle so single motor unit causes weak contraction of entire muscle Motor units in muscle usually contract asynchronously; helps prevent fatigue

7. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Twitch Motor unit's response to single action potential of its motor neuron Simplest contraction observable in lab (recorded as myogram)

8. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Twitch Three phases of muscle twitch –Latent period: events of excitation- contraction coupling; no muscle tension –Period of contraction: cross bridge formation; tension increases –Period of relaxation: Ca 2+ reentry into SR; tension declines to zero Muscle contracts faster than it relaxes

9. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.14a The muscle twitch. Latent period Period of contraction Period of relaxation Percentage of maximum tension Single stimulus Time (ms) 140120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Myogram showing the three phases of an isometric twitch

10. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Twitch Comparisons Different strength and duration of twitches due to variations in metabolic properties and enzymes between muscles Muscle twitch only in lab or neuromuscular problems; normal muscle contraction smooth

11. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.14b The muscle twitch. Latent period Extraocular muscle (lateral rectus) Gastrocnemius Soleus Percentage of maximum tension Single stimulus Comparison of the relative duration of twitch responses of three muscles 160 200 Time (ms) 120 80 40 0

12. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Graded Muscle Responses Graded muscle responses –Varying strength of contraction for different demands Required for proper control of skeletal movement Responses graded by 1.Changing frequency of stimulation 2.Changing strength of stimulation

13. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Response to Change in Stimulus Frequency Single stimulus results in single contractile response—muscle twitch

14. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.15a A muscle's response to changes in stimulation frequency. Single stimulus single twitch Contraction Maximal tension of a single twitch Relaxation Stimulus 300200100 Time (ms) A single stimulus is delivered. The muscle contracts and relaxes. Tension 0

15. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Response to Change in Stimulus Frequency Wave (temporal) summation –Increased stimulus frequency (muscle does not completely relax between stimuli)  second contraction of greater force Additional Ca 2+ release with second stimulus stimulates more shortening Produces smooth, continuous contractions

16. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Response to Change in Stimulus Frequency If stimuli are given quickly enough, muscle reaches maximal tension  fused (complete) tetanus Smooth, sustained contraction –No muscle relaxation  muscle fatigue Muscle cannot contract; zero tension

17. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.15c A muscle's response to changes in stimulation frequency. High stimulation frequency fused (complete) tetanus Stimuli At higher stimulus frequencies, there is no relaxation at all between stimuli. This is fused (complete) tetanus. Tension Time (ms) 0 300200100

18. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Response to Change in Stimulus Strength Recruitment (multiple motor unit summation) controls force of contraction Subthreshold stimuli – no observable contractions Threshold stimulus: stimulus strength causing first observable muscle contraction Maximal stimulus – strongest stimulus that increases contractile force

19. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Response to Change in Stimulus Strength Muscle contracts more vigorously as stimulus strength increases above threshold Contraction force precisely controlled by recruitment – activates more and more muscle fibers Beyond maximal stimulus no increase in force of contraction

20. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.16 Relationship between stimulus intensity (graph at top) and muscle tension (tracing below). Stimulus strength Stimulus voltage Threshold stimulus Maximal stimulus 10 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 Proportion of motor units excited Strength of muscle contraction Maximal contraction Time (ms) Tension Stimuli to nerve

21. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Response to Change in Stimulus Strength Recruitment works on size principle –Motor units with smallest muscle fibers recruited first –Motor units with larger and larger fibers recruited as stimulus intensity increases –Largest motor units activated only for most powerful contractions

22. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.17 The size principle of recruitment. Skeletal muscle fibers Tension Motor unit 1 recruited (small fibers) Motor unit 2 recruited (medium fibers) Motor unit 3 recruited (large fibers) Time

23. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Isotonic Contractions Muscle changes in length and moves load –Thin filaments slide Isotonic contractions either concentric or eccentric: –Concentric contractions—muscle shortens and does work –Eccentric contractions—muscle generates force as it lengthens

24. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.18a Isotonic (concentric) and isometric contractions. (1 of 2) Isotonic contraction (concentric) On stimulation, muscle develops enough tension (force) to lift the load (weight). Once the resistance is overcome, the muscle shortens, and the tension remains constant for the rest of the contraction. Tendon Muscle contracts (isotonic contraction) 3 kg Tendon

25. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Amount of resistance Muscle relaxes Peak tension developed Muscle stimulus Resting length Time (ms) Tension developed (kg) 8 6 4 2 0 100 90 80 70 Muscle length (percent of resting length) Isotonic contraction (concentric) Figure 9.18a Isotonic (concentric) and isometric contractions. (2 of 2)

26. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Isometric Contractions Load greater than tension muscle can develop Tension increases to muscle's capacity, but muscle neither shortens nor lengthens –Cross bridges generate force but do not move actin filaments

27. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.18b Isotonic (concentric) and isometric contractions. (1 of 2) Muscle is attached to a weight that exceeds the muscle's peak tension-developing capabilities. When stimulated, the tension increases to the muscle's peak tension-developing capability, but the muscle does not shorten. Isometric contraction 6 kg Muscle contracts (isometric contraction)

28. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.18b Isotonic (concentric) and isometric contractions. (2 of 2) Tension developed (kg) Muscle length (percent of resting length) Amount of resistance Peak tension developed Muscle relaxes Muscle stimulus Resting length 8 6 4 2 0 100 90 80 70 Time (ms) Isometric contraction

29. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Tone Constant, slightly contracted state of all muscles Due to spinal reflexes –Groups of motor units alternately activated in response to input from stretch receptors in muscles Keeps muscles firm, healthy, and ready to respond

30. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Metabolism: Energy for Contraction ATP only source used directly for contractile activities –Move and detach cross bridges, calcium pumps in SR, return of Na + & K + after excitation-contraction coupling Available stores of ATP depleted in 4–6 seconds

31. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Metabolism: Energy for Contraction ATP regenerated by: –Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP) –Anaerobic pathway (glycolysis  lactic acid) –Aerobic cellular respiration

32. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.19a Pathways for regenerating ATP during muscle activity. Direct phosphorylation Coupled reaction of creatine Phosphate (CP) and ADP Energy source: CP Oxygen use: None Products: 1 ATP per CP, creatine Duration of energy provided: 15 seconds Creatine kinase Creatine

33. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Energy Systems Used During Sports Aerobic endurance –Length of time muscle contracts using aerobic pathways Anaerobic threshold –Point at which muscle metabolism converts to anaerobic

34. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.20 Comparison of energy sources used during short-duration exercise and prolonged-duration exercise. Short-duration exercise 6 seconds ATP stored in muscles is used first. 10 seconds ATP is formed from creatine phosphate and ADP (direct phosphorylation). 30–40 seconds Glycogen stored in muscles is broken down to glucose, which is oxidized to generate ATP (anaerobic pathway). End of exercise Prolonged-duration exercise Hours ATP is generated by breakdown of several nutrient energy fuels by aerobic pathway.

35. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle Fatigue Physiological inability to contract despite continued stimulation Occurs when –Ionic imbalances (K +, Ca 2+, P i ) interfere with E ‑ C coupling –Prolonged exercise damages SR and interferes with Ca 2+ regulation and release Total lack of ATP occurs rarely, during states of continuous contraction, and causes contractures (continuous contractions)

36. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Excess Postexercise Oxygen Consumption To return muscle to resting state –Oxygen reserves replenished –Lactic acid converted to pyruvic acid –Glycogen stores replaced –ATP and creatine phosphate reserves replenished All require extra oxygen; occur post exercise

37. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Heat Production During Muscle Activity ~40% of energy released in muscle activity useful as work Remaining energy (60%) given off as heat Dangerous heat levels prevented by radiation of heat from skin and sweating Shivering - result of muscle contractions to generate heat when cold