1. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Thread Priorities I  Although priorities can be given to Java threads, they are only used as a guide to the underlying scheduler when allocating resources  An application, once running, can explicitly give up the processor resource by calling the yield method  yield places the thread to the back of the run queue for its priority level

2. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Thread Priorities II package java.lang; public class Thread extends Object implements Runnable { // constants public static final int MAX_PRIORITY = 10; public static final int MIN_PRIORITY = 1; public static final int NORM_PRIORITY = 5; // methods public final int getPriority(); public final void setPriority(int newPriority); public static void yield();... }

3. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Warning  From a real-time perspective, Java ’ s scheduling and priority models are weak; in particular:  no guarantee is given that the highest priority runnable thread is always executing  equal priority threads may or may not be time sliced  where native threads are used, different Java priorities may be mapped to the same operating system priority

4. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Delaying Threads: Clocks  Java supports the notion of a wall clock  java.lang. System.currentTimeMillis returns the number of milliseconds since 1/1/1970 GMT and is used by used by java.util.Date (see also java.util.Calendar )  However, a thread can only be delayed from executing by calling the sleep methods in the Thread class  sleep provides a relative delay (sleep from now for X milliseconds, y nano seconds), rather than sleep until 15th December 2003

5. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Delaying a Thread public class Thread extends Object implements Runnable {... public static void sleep(long ms) throws InterruptedException; public static void sleep(long ms, int nanoseconds) throws InterruptedException;... }

6. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Sleep Granularity Time specified by program Granularity difference between clock and sleep time Interrupts disabled Thread runnable here but not executing Thread executing Time Local drift

7. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Drift  The time over-run associated with both relative and absolute delays is called the local drift and it it cannot be eliminated  It is possible, with absolute delays, to eliminate the cumulative drift that could arise if local drifts were allowed to superimpose while(true) { // do action every 1 second sleep(1000) }

8. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Absolute Delays I  Consider an embedded system where the software controller needs to invoke two actions  The causes the environment to prepare for the second action  The second action must occur a specified period (say 10 seconds) after the first action has been initiated  Simply sleeping for 10 seconds after a call to the first action will not achieve the desired effect for two reasons  The first action may take some time to execute. If it took 1 second then a sleep of 10 would be a total delay of 11 seconds  The thread could be pre-empted after the first action and not execute again for several seconds  This makes it extremely difficult to determine how long the relative delay should be

9. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Absolute Delays II { static long start; static void action1() {...}; static void action2() {...}; try { start = System.currentTimeMillis(); action1(); Thread.sleep( 10000 - (System.currentTimeMillis() - start)); } catch (InterruptedException ie) {...}; action2(); } What is wrong with this approach?

10. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Timeout on Waiting I  In many situations, a thread can wait for an arbitrary long period time within synchronized code for an associated notify (or notifyAll ) call  There are occasions when the absence of the call, within a specified period of time, requires that the thread take some alternative action  Java provides two methods for this situation both of which allows the wait method call to timeout  In one case, the timeout is expressed in milliseconds; in the other case, milliseconds and nanoseconds can be specified

11. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Timeout on Waiting II  There are two important points to note about this timeout facility 1. As with sleep, the timeout is a relative time and not an absolute time 2. It is not possible to know for certain if the thread has been woken by the timeout expiring or by a notify  There is no return value from the wait method and no timeout exception is thrown

12. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Timeouts on Waiting public class TimeoutException extends Exception {}; public class TimedWait { public static void wait(Object lock, long millis) throws InterruptedException, TimeoutException { // assumes the lock is held by the caller long start = System.currentTimeMillis(); lock.wait(millis); if(System.currentTimeMillis() >= start + millis) throw new TimeoutException(); } What is wrong with this approach?

13. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Thread Groups I  Thread groups allow collections of threads to be grouped together and manipulated as a group rather than as individuals  They also provide a means of restricting who does what to which thread  Every thread in Java is a member of a thread group  There is a default group associated with the main program, and hence unless otherwise specified, all created threads are placed in this group

14. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Thread Groups II public class ThreadGroup { public ThreadGroup(String name); // Creates a new thread group. public ThreadGroup(ThreadGroup parent, String name); // Creates a new group with the // specified parent.... public final void interrupt(); // Interrupt all threads in the group. public void uncaughtException(Thread t, Throwable e); // Called if a thread in the group // terminates due to an uncaught exception. }

15. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Thread Groups III  Hierarchies of thread groups to be created  Thread groups seem to have fallen from favour in recent years  The deprecation of many of its methods means that there is little use for it  However, the interrupt mechanisms is a useful way of interacting with a group of threads  Also, the uncaughtException method is the only hook that Java 1.4 provides for recovering when a thread terminates unexpectedly

16. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Processes  Threads execute within the same virtual address space and, therefore, have access to shared memory.  The Java languages acknowledges that the Java program might not be the only activity on the hosting computer and that it will executing under control of an operating system  Java, therefore, allows the programmer to create and interact with other processes under that host system  Java defines two classes to aid this interaction:  java.lang.Process  java.lang.Runtime  (look them up on the web and in the book)

17. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Strengths of the Java Concurrency Model  The main strength is that it is simple and it is supported directly by the language  This enables many of the errors that potentially occur with attempting to use an operating system interface for concurrency do not exists in Java  The language syntax and strong type checking gives some protection  E.g., it is not possible to forget to end a synchronized block  Portability of programs is enhanced because the concurrency model that the programmer uses is the same irrespective of on which OS the program finally executes

18. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Weaknesses I  Lack of support for condition variable  Poor support for absolute time and time-outs on waiting  No preference given to threads continuing after a notify over threads waiting to gain access to the monitor lock for the first time  Poor support for priorities Note Java 1.5 concurrency utilities will provide some help here

19. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Weaknesses II  Synchronized code should be kept as short as possible  Nested monitor calls  should be avoided because the outer lock is not released when the inner monitor waits (to release the lock causes other problems)  can lead to deadlock occurring  It is not always obvious when a nested monitor call is being made:  methods in a class not labelled as synchronized can still contain a synchronized statement;  methods in a class not labelled as synchronized can be overridden with a synchronized method; method calls which start off as being unsynchronized may be used with a synchronized subclass  methods called via interfaces cannot be labelled as synchronized

20. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Bloch ’ s Thread Safety Levels I  Immutable  Objects are constant and cannot be changed  Thread-safe  Objects are mutable but they can be used safely in a concurrent environment as the methods are synchronized  Conditionally thread-safe  Objects either have methods which are thread-safe, or have methods which are called in sequence with the lock held by the caller

21. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Bloch ’ s Thread Safety Levels II  Thread compatible  Instances of the class provide no synchronization  However, instances of the class can be safely used in a concurrent environment, if the caller provides the synchronization by surrounding each method (or sequence of method calls) with the appropriate lock  Thread-hostile  Instances of the class should not be used in a concurrent environment even if the caller provides external synchronization  Typically a thread hostile class is accessing static data or the external environment

22. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Summary I  Threads can have priorities but support is weak  Threads can delay themselves by using the sleep methods which only supports relative time periods (intervals); it is not possible to accurately sleep until an absolute time  Time-outs of waiting for events is supported via the wait methods but it is not easy to determine whether the timeout has expired or the event has occurred  Threads can be grouped together via the ThreadGroup class  Hierarchies of groups can be formed and it is possible to interrupt the whole group

23. © Andy Wellings, 2004 Summary II  Interaction with processes outside the virtual machine via the Processes and RunTime classes  The Java model has both strengths and weaknesses  Bloch ’ s has defined thread safety levels